How Did the Reformation Impact Art in Northern Protestant Europe?

Hans Holbein the Younger's Noli me tangere a relatively rare Protestant oil painting of Christ from the Reformation period. It is pocket-sized, and by and large naturalistic in manner, fugitive iconic elements like the halo, which is barely discernible.

The Protestant Reformation during the 16th century in Europe almost entirely rejected the existing tradition of Cosmic art, and very frequently destroyed every bit much of it equally it could reach. A new artistic tradition developed, producing far smaller quantities of art that followed Protestant agendas and diverged drastically from the southern European tradition and the humanist art produced during the High Renaissance. The Lutheran churches, every bit they developed, accustomed a limited function for larger works of fine art in churches,^{[1] [2]} and also encouraged prints and volume illustrations. Calvinists remained steadfastly opposed to art in churches, and suspicious of small printed images of religious subjects, though generally fully accepting secular images in their homes.

In turn, the Cosmic Counter-Reformation both reacted confronting and responded to Protestant criticisms of art in Roman Catholicism to produce a more stringent style of Catholic fine art. Protestant religious art both embraced Protestant values and assisted in the proliferation of Protestantism, but the corporeality of religious art produced in Protestant countries was hugely reduced. Artists in Protestant countries diversified into secular forms of fine art similar history painting, mural painting, portrait painting and even so life.

Art and the Reformation [edit]

The Protestant Reformation was a religious movement that occurred in Western Europe during the 16th century that resulted in a separate in Christianity between Roman Catholics and Protestants. This motion "created a Due north-Due south split in Europe, where generally Northern countries became Protestant, while Southern countries remained Cosmic."^[3]

The Reformation produced two principal branches of Protestantism; 1 was the Evangelical Lutheran churches, which followed the teachings of Martin Luther, and the other the Reformed Churches, which followed the ideas of John Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli. Out of these branches grew 3 main sects, the Lutheran tradition, as well as the Continental Reformed and Anglican traditions, the latter two following the Reformed (Calvinist) faith.^[4] Lutherans and Reformed Christians had dissimilar views regarding religious imagery.^{[v] [2]}

Martin Luther in Germany immune and encouraged the display of a restricted range of religious imagery in churches, seeing the Evangelical Lutheran Church every bit a continuation of the "ancient, churchly church building".^[2] The use of images was ane of the problems where Luther strongly opposed the more radical Andreas Karlstadt. For a few years Lutheran altarpieces like the Last Supper by the younger Cranach were produced in Germany, especially by Luther's friend Lucas Cranach, to supercede Catholic ones, often containing portraits of leading reformers as the apostles or other protagonists, but retaining the traditional delineation of Jesus. As such, "Lutheran worship became a circuitous ritual choreography prepare in a richly furnished church interior."^[1] Lutherans connected the utilise of the crucifix as it highlighted their high view of the Theology of the Cantankerous.^{[2] [6]} Stories grew upward of "indestructible" images of Luther, that had survived fires, past divine intervention.^[7] Thus, for Lutherans, "the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious paradigm."^[eight]

On the other hand, there was a wave of iconoclasm, or the destruction of religious imagery. This began very early in the Reformation, when students in Erfurt destroyed a wooden chantry in the Franciscan friary in December 1521.^[ix] Later on, Reformed Christianity showed consistent hostility to religious images, every bit idolatry, particularly sculpture and large paintings. Book illustrations and prints were more acceptable, because they were smaller and more private. Reformed leaders, specially Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin, actively eliminated imagery from churches within the control of their followers, and regarded the cracking majority of religious images every bit idolatrous.^[10] Early Calvinists were even suspicious of portraits of clergy; Christopher Hales (soon to be one of the Marian exiles) tried to have portraits of six divines sent to him from Zurich, and felt information technology necessary to explicate his motives in a letter of 1550: "this is not done ....with a view to making idols of you; they are desired for the reasons which I accept mentioned, and not for the sake of honor or veneration".^[11]

The destruction was often extremely divisive and traumatic within communities, an unmistakable physical manifestation, often imposed from above, that could not be ignored. It was just for this reason that reformers favoured a single dramatic coup, and many premature acts in this line sharply increased subsequent hostility betwixt Catholics and Calvinists in communities – for it was generally at the level of the city, town or village that such actions occurred, except in England and Scotland.

But reformers oftentimes felt impelled by stiff personal convictions, as shown by the case of Frau Göldli, on which Zwingli was asked to propose. She was a Swiss lady who had in one case made a promise to Saint Apollinaris that if she recovered from an illness she would donate an image of the saint to a local convent, which she did. Later she turned Protestant, and feeling she must reverse what she now saw as a wrong action, she went to the convent church building, removed the statue and burnt information technology. Prosecuted for blasphemy, she paid a small-scale fine without complaint, just flatly refused to pay the additional sum the court ordered be paid to the convent to replace the statue, putting her at risk of serious penalties. Zwingli's letter advised trying to pay the nuns a larger sum on condition they did not replace the statue, but the eventual outcome is unknown.^[12] By the stop of his life, after iconoclastic shows of force became a feature of the early phases of the French Wars of Religion, even Calvin became alarmed and criticised them, realizing that they had become counter-productive.^[13]

Daniel Hisgen'due south paintings are mostly cycles on the parapets of Lutheran church galleries. Here the Cosmos (left) to the Announcement can exist seen.

Subjects prominent in Catholic fine art other than Jesus and events in the Bible, such equally Mary and saints were given much less accent or disapproved of in Protestant theology. As a result, in much of northern Europe, the Church virtually ceased to commission figurative art, placing the dictation of content entirely in the easily of the artists and lay consumers. Calvinism even objected to non-religious funerary art, such as the heraldry and effigies dearest of the Renaissance rich.^[xiv] Where there was religious art, iconic images of Christ and scenes from the Passion became less frequent, as did portrayals of the saints and clergy. Narrative scenes from the Bible, specially as book illustrations and prints, and, later, moralistic depictions of modernistic life were preferred. Both Cranachs painted allegorical scenes setting out Lutheran doctrines, in item a series on Law and Gospel. Daniel Hisgen, a German language Rococo painter of the 18th century in Upper Hesse, specialized in cycles of biblical paintings decorating the front of the gallery parapet in Lutheran churches with an upper gallery, a less prominent position that satisfied Lutheran scruples. Wooden organ cases were besides often painted with similar scenes to those in Catholic churches.

Lutherans strongly defended their existing sacred art from a new wave of Calvinist-on-Lutheran iconoclasm in the 2nd half of the century, as Calvinist rulers or city authorities attempted to impose their will on Lutheran populations in the "2d Reformation" of almost 1560–1619.^{[two] [15]} Against the Reformed, Lutherans exclaimed: "You lot black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to nail you lot and your Calvinist priests in return".^[ii] The Beeldenstorm, a large and very disorderly wave of Calvinist mob devastation of Catholic images and church fittings that spread through the Low Countries in the summertime of 1566 was the largest outbreak of this sort, with drastic political repercussions.^[16] This entrada of Calvinist iconoclasm "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Germany and "antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox" in the Baltic region.^[17] Similar patterns to the German actions, but with the addition of encouragement and sometimes finance from the national regime, were seen in Anglican England in the English language Civil War and English Commonwealth in the adjacent century, when more than damage was done to fine art in medieval parish churches than during the English language Reformation.

A major theological difference between Protestantism and Catholicism is the question of transubstantiation, or the literal transformation of the Communion wafer and vino into the body and blood of Christ, though both Lutheran and Reformed Christians affirmed the existent presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the former as a sacramental union and the latter as a pneumatic presence.^[18] Protestant churches that were not participating in the iconoclasm often selected as altarpieces scenes depicting the Last Supper. This helped the worshippers to recall their theology behind the Eucharist, as opposed to Catholic churches, which often chose crucifixion scenes for their altarpieces to remind the worshippers that the sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of the Mass were one and the aforementioned, via the literal transformation of the Eucharist.

The Protestant Reformation also capitalized on the popularity of printmaking in northern Europe. Printmaking allowed images to be mass-produced and widely available to the public at low toll. This allowed for the widespread availability of visually persuasive imagery. The Protestant church was therefore able, every bit the Catholic Church building had been doing since the early 15th century, to bring their theology to the people, and religious teaching was brought from the church into the homes of the common people, thereby forming a direct link between the worshippers and the divine.

There was also a trigger-happy propaganda war fought partly with popular prints past both sides; these were oftentimes highly scurrilous caricatures of the other side and their doctrines. On the Protestant side, portraits of the leading reformers were popular, and their likenesses sometimes represented the Apostles and other figures in Biblical scenes such as the Terminal Supper.

Genre and landscape [edit]

After the early on years of the reformation, artists in Protestant areas painted far fewer religious subjects for public brandish, although there was a conscious effort to develop a Protestant iconography of Bible illustration in volume illustrations and prints. In the early Reformation artists, especially Cranach the Elder and Younger and Holbein, made paintings for churches showing the leaders of the reformation in ways very similar to Catholic saints. Subsequently Protestant gustatory modality turned from the display in churches of religious scenes, although some continued to be displayed in homes. At that place was likewise a reaction against large images from classical mythology, the other manifestation of high style at the time. This brought about a style that was more directly related to accurately portraying the present times. The traditions of landscapes and genre paintings that would fully flower in the 17th century began during this period.

Peter Bruegel (1525–1569) of Flemish region is the great genre painter of his fourth dimension, who worked for both Catholic and Protestant patrons. In well-nigh of his paintings, fifty-fifty when depicting religious scenes, about infinite is given to landscape or peasant life in 16th century Flanders. Bruegel's Wedding Banquet, portrays a Flemish-peasant wedding dinner in a barn, which makes no reference to whatever religious, historical or classical events, and merely gives insight into the everyday life of the Flemish peasant. Some other great painter of his age, Lucas van Leyden (1489–1533), is known mostly for his engravings, such as The Milkmaid, which depicts peasants with milk cows. This engraving, from 1510, well before the Reformation, contains no reference to organized religion or classicism, although much of his other work features both.

Bruegel was also an achieved landscape painter. Oft Bruegel painted agricultural landscapes, such as Summertime from his famous prepare of the seasons, where he shows peasants harvesting wheat in the state, with a few workers taking a lunch break under a nearby tree. This type of landscape painting, plain void of religious or classical connotations, gave birth to a long line of northern European landscape artists, such as Jacob van Ruisdael.

With the dandy evolution of the engraving and printmaking market in Antwerp in the 16th century, the public was provided with accessible and affordable images. Many artists provided drawings to volume and print publishers, including Bruegel. In 1555 Bruegel began working for The Four Winds, a publishing house owned past Hieronymus Cock. The Iv Winds provided the public with most a thousand etchings and engravings over two decades. Betwixt 1555 and 1563 Bruegel supplied Cock with nigh 40 drawings, which were engraved for the Flemish public.

The courtly style of Northern Mannerism in the second half of the century has been seen as partly motivated by the desire of rulers in both the Holy Roman Empire and France to notice a style of fine art that could appeal to members of the courtly aristocracy on both sides of the religious dissever.^[19] Thus religious controversy had the rather ironic effect of encouraging classical mythology in fine art, since though they might disapprove, even the most stern Calvinists could not credibly claim that 16th century mythological art really represented idolatry.

Council of Trent [edit]

During the Reformation a great deviation arose between the Catholic Church and the Protestant Reformers of the north regarding the content and manner of fine art work. The Cosmic Church building viewed Protestantism and Reformed iconoclasm as a threat to the church and in response came together at the Quango of Trent to found some of their own reforms. The church felt that much religious fine art in Catholic countries (peculiarly Italy) had lost its focus on religious discipline-matter, and became too interested in cloth things and decorative qualities. The quango came together periodically between 1545 and 1563. The reforms that resulted from this council are what set the basis for what is known as the Counter-Reformation.

Italian painting afterward the 1520s, with the notable exception of the art of Venice, developed into Mannerism, a highly sophisticated style, striving for issue, that concerned many churchman as lacking appeal for the mass of the population. Church pressure to restrain religious imagery affected art from the 1530s and resulted in the decrees of the terminal session of the Council of Trent in 1563 including brusque and rather inexplicit passages concerning religious images, which were to have neat impact on the development of Catholic art. Previous Catholic Church building councils had rarely felt the demand to pronounce on these matters, unlike Orthodox ones which take often ruled on specific types of images.

Statements are often made along the lines of "The decrees of the Quango of Trent stipulated that art was to be straight and compelling in its narrative presentation, that it was to provide an accurate presentation of the biblical narrative or saint's life, rather than adding incidental and imaginary moments, and that information technology was to encourage piety",^[20] but in fact the actual decrees of the council were far less explicit than this, though all of these points were probably in line with their intentions. The very short passage dealing with art came only in the terminal session in 1563, every bit a last infinitesimal and trivial-discussed add-on, based on a French draft. The prescript confirmed the traditional doctrine that images just represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person themself, not the paradigm, and further instructed that:

...every superstition shall be removed ... all lasciviousness be avoided; in such wise that figures shall non be painted or adorned with a beauty exciting to lust... in that location exist goose egg seen that is disorderly, or that is unbecomingly or confusedly bundled, nothing that is profane, cypher indecorous, seeing that holiness becometh the house of God. And that these things may be the more than faithfully observed, the holy Synod ordains, that no one be allowed to identify, or cause to be placed, any unusual image, in whatever identify, or church, howsoever exempted, except that image accept been approved of by the bishop ...^[21]

The number of decorative treatments of religious subjects declined sharply, every bit did "unbecomingly or confusedly arranged" Mannerist pieces, as a number of books, notably by the Flemish theologian Molanus, Saint Charles Borromeo and Cardinal Gabriele Paleotti, and instructions by local bishops, amplified the decrees, often going into minute detail on what was adequate. Many traditional iconographies considered without adequate scriptural foundation were in issue prohibited, every bit was whatsoever inclusion of classical infidel elements in religious art, and almost all nudity, including that of the infant Jesus.^[22] According to the great medievalist Émile Mâle, this was "the death of medieval art".^[23]

Art and the Counter-Reformation [edit]

While Calvinists largely removed public fine art from religion and Reformed societies moved towards more "secular" forms of art which might be said to glorify God through the portrayal of the "natural beauty of His creation and by depicting people who were created in His epitome",^[24] Counter-Reformation Catholic church building continued to encourage religious art, but insisted it was strictly religious in content, glorifying God and Catholic traditions, including the sacraments and the saints.^[25] Likewise, "Lutheran places of worship incorporate images and sculptures not only of Christ but also of biblical and occasionally of other saints also as prominent decorated pulpits due to the importance of preaching, stained glass, ornate furniture, magnificent examples of traditional and modern architecture, carved or otherwise embellished altar pieces, and liberal use of candles on the altar and elsewhere."^[26] The main difference between Lutheran and Roman Catholic places of worship was the presence of the tabernacle in the latter.^[26]

Sydney Joseph Freedberg, who invented the term Counter-Maniera, cautions against connecting this more austere way in religious painting, which spread from Rome from about 1550, too directly with the decrees of Trent, every bit it pre-dates these by several years. He describes the decrees as "a codifying and official sanction of a temper that had come to be conspicuous in Roman culture".^[27]

Scipione Pulzone's (1550–1598) painting of the Lamentation which was commissioned for the Church of the Gesù in 1589 is a Counter-Maniera work that gives a articulate demonstration of what the holy council was striving for in the new style of religious art. With the focus of the painting giving direct attending to the crucifixion of Christ, it complies with the religious content of the council and shows the story of the passion while keeping Christ in the image of the ideal human being.

X years after the Council of Trent'southward decree Paolo Veronese was summoned past the Inquisition to explain why his Last Supper, a huge canvass for the refectory of a monastery, contained, in the words of the Inquisition: "buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs and other such scurrilities" as well as extravagant costumes and settings, in what is indeed a fantasy version of a Venetian patrician feast.^[28] Veronese was told that he must change his indecorous painting inside a iii-month period – in fact he simply changed the title to The Feast in the House of Levi, yet an episode from the Gospels, but a less doctrinally cardinal one, and no more was said.^[29] No doubt any Protestant authorities would accept been equally disapproving. The pre-existing decline in "donor portraits" (those who had paid for an altarpiece or other painting existence placed within the painting) was likewise accelerated; these become rare subsequently the Council.

Repentance of Peter by El Greco, 1580–1586.

Further waves of "Counter-Reformation fine art" occurred when areas formerly Protestant were once more brought under Cosmic dominion. The churches were normally empty of images, and such periods could correspond a nail time for artists. The all-time known case is the new Spanish Netherlands (essentially modern Kingdom of belgium), which had been the centre of Protestantism in the Netherlands merely became (initially) exclusively Cosmic subsequently the Spanish drove the Protestants to the north, where they established the United Provinces. Rubens was one of a number of Flemish Baroque painters who received many commissions, and produced several of his best known works re-filling the empty churches.^[30] Several cities in France in the French wars of religion and in Germany, Bohemia and elsewhere in the Thirty Years War saw similar bursts of restocking.

The rather extreme pronouncement by a synod in Antwerp in 1610 that in future the central panels of altarpieces should only evidence New Testament scenes was certainly ignored in the cases of many paintings by Rubens and other Flemish artists (and in particular the Jesuits connected to commission altarpieces centred on their saints), only nonetheless New Testament subjects probably did increase.^[31] Altarpieces became larger and more easy to brand out from a distance, and the large painted or gilded carved wooden altarpieces that were the pride of many northern late medieval cities were often replaced with paintings.^[32]

Some subjects were given increased prominence to reverberate Counter-Reformation emphases. The Repentance of Peter, showing the end of the episode of the Deprival of Peter, was not frequently seen before the Counter-Reformation, when it became popular as an assertion of the sacrament of Confession against Protestant attacks. This followed an influential volume by the Jesuit Cardinal Robert Bellarmine (1542–1621). The image typically shows Peter in tears, as a half-length portrait with no other figures, oft with hands clasped equally at right, and sometimes "the cock" in the groundwork; it was oftentimes coupled with a repentant Mary Magdalen, another exemplar from Bellarmine's volume.^[33]

Equally the Counter-Reformation grew stronger and the Cosmic Church felt less threat from the Protestant Reformation, Rome once again began to assert its universality to other nations around the world. The religious society of the Jesuits or the Society of Jesus, sent missionaries to the Americas, parts of Africa, Republic of india and eastern Asia and used the arts every bit an constructive means of articulating their message of the Catholic Church'southward potency over the Christian faith. The Jesuits' bear upon was so profound during their missions of the time that today very like styles of art from the Counter-Reformation catamenia in Cosmic Churches are found all over the world.

Despite the differences in approaches to religious art, stylistic developments passed about every bit quickly beyond religious divisions as inside the 2 "blocs". Artistically Rome remained in closer affect with the Netherlands than with Kingdom of spain.

Notes [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Spicer, Andrew (v December 2016). Lutheran Churches in Early Mod Europe. Taylor & Francis. p. 237. ISBN9781351921169. As it developed in north-eastern Germany, Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior. This much is evident from the background of an epitaph painted in 1615 past Martin Schulz, destined for the Nikolaikirche in Berlin (see Figure 5.v.).
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Lamport, Mark A. (31 August 2017). Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138. ISBN9781442271593. Lutherans connected to worship in pre-Reformation churches, generally with few alterations to the interior. It has fifty-fifty been suggested that in Federal republic of germany to this day 1 finds more aboriginal Marian altarpieces in Lutheran than in Catholic churches. Thus in Germany and in Scandinavia many pieces of medieval art and compages survived. Joseph Leo Koerner has noted that Lutherans, seeing themselves in the tradition of the ancient, churchly church building, sought to defend as well as reform the use of images. "An empty, white-washed church proclaimed a wholly spiritualized cult, at odds with Luther'southward doctrine of Christ's real presence in the sacraments" (Koerner 2004, 58). In fact, in the 16th century some of the strongest opposition to destruction of images came not from Catholics but from Lutherans against Calvinists: "You black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in render" (Koerner 2004, 58). Works of art continued to be displayed in Lutheran churches, often including an imposing big crucifix in the sanctuary, a clear reference to Luther'southward theologia crucis. ... In dissimilarity, Reformed (Calvinist) churches are strikingly dissimilar. Commonly unadorned and somewhat lacking in aesthetic appeal, pictures, sculptures, and ornate chantry-pieces are largely absent-minded; there are few or no candles; and crucifixes or crosses are too mostly absent-minded.
3. ^ The Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Historicist and Causes of the Reformation. New Advent.
4. ^ Picken, Stuart D.B. (sixteen December 2011). Historical Lexicon of Calvinism. Scarecrow Press. p. 1. ISBN9780810872240. While Germany and the Scandinavian countries adopted the Lutheran model of church building and state, France, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Republic of hungary, what is at present the Czech Republic, and Scotland created Reformed Churches based, in varying ways, on the model Calvin set up in Geneva. Although England pursued the Reformation platonic in its ain mode, leading to the formation of the Anglican Communion, the theology of the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England were heavily influenced by Calvinism.
5. ^ Nuechterlein, Jeanne Elizabeth (2000). Holbein and the Reformation of Art. University of California, Berkeley.
6. ^ Marquardt, Janet T.; Jordan, Alyce A. (14 January 2009). Medieval Art and Architecture later the Centre Ages. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71. ISBN9781443803984. In fact, Lutherans ofttimes justified their continued use of medieval crucifixes with the same arguments employed since the Middle Ages, as is axiomatic from the example of the altar of the Holy Cross in the Cistercian church building of Doberan.
7. ^ Michalski, 89
8. ^ Dixon, C. Scott (ix March 2012). Battling the Reformation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 146. ISBN9781118272305. According to Koerner, who dwells on Lutheran art, the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image.
9. ^ Noble, 19, annotation 12
10. ^ Institutes, 1:xi, department 7 on crosses
11. ^ Campbell, Lorne, Renaissance Portraits, European Portrait-Painting in the 14th, 15th and 16th Centuries, p. 193, 1990, Yale, ISBN 0300046758; Hales was the brother of John Hales (died 1572)
12. ^ Michalski, 87-88
13. ^ Michalski, 73-74
14. ^ Michalski, 72-73
15. ^ Michalski, 84. Google books
16. ^ Kleiner, Fred South. (1 January 2010). Gardner's Art through the Ages: A Concise History of Western Art. Cengage Learning. p. 254. ISBN9781424069224. In an episode known as the Great Iconoclasm, bands of Calvinists visited Cosmic churches in the netherlands in 1566, shattering stained-glass windows, bang-up statues, and destroying paintings and other artworks they perceived equally idolatrous.
17. ^ Marshall, Peter (22 Oct 2009). The Reformation. Oxford University Press. p. 114. ISBN9780191578885. Iconoclastic incidents during the Calvinist 'Second Reformation' in Deutschland provoked reactive riots past Lutheran mobs, while Protestant image-breaking in the Baltic region deeply antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox, a group with whom reformers might accept hoped to make mutual crusade.
18. ^ Mattox, Mickey L.; Roeber, A. G. (27 February 2012). Changing Churches: An Orthodox, Cosmic, and Lutheran Theological Conversation. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 54. ISBN9780802866943. In this "sacramental wedlock," Lutherans taught, the trunk and blood of Christ are so truly united to the bread and wine of the Holy Communion that the two may be identified. They are at the aforementioned time body and blood, bread and wine. This divine food is given, more than-over, not simply for the strengthening of organized religion, nor only equally a sign of our unity in faith, nor just as an assurance of the forgiveness of sin. Even more, in this sacrament the Lutheran Christian receives the very body and blood of Christ precisely for the strengthening of the union of organized religion. The "real presence" of Christ in the Holy Sacrament is the means by which the matrimony of religion, effected by God's Give-and-take and the sacrament of baptism, is strengthened and maintained. Intimate matrimony with Christ, in other words, leads directly to the most intimate communion in his holy torso and blood.
19. ^ Trevor-Roper, 98-101 on Rudolf, and Strong, Pt. two, Chapter iii on France, especially pp. 98-101, 112-113.
20. ^ Art in Renaissance Italia. Paoletti, John T., and Gary M. Radke. Pg. 514.
21. ^ Text of the 25th prescript of the Quango of Trent
22. ^ Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450-1660, affiliate 8, particularly pp. 107-128, 1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, ISBN 0-xix-881050-4
23. ^ The expiry of Medieval Fine art Extract from volume by Émile Mâle
24. ^ Art of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Nosotro, Rit.
25. ^ The Art of the Counter Reformation. Metropolitan Museum of Fine art.
26. ^ ^{a b} Lamport, Mark A. (31 August 2017). Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138. ISBN9781442271593.
27. ^ (Sidney) Freedberg, 427–428, 427 quoted
28. ^ "Transcript of Veronese's testimony". Archived from the original on 2009-09-29. Retrieved 2007-03-26 .
29. ^ David Rostand, Painting in Sixteenth-Century Venice: Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto, 2nd ed 1997, Cambridge UP ISBN 0-521-56568-five
30. ^ (David) Freedberg, throughout
31. ^ (David) Freedberg, 139-140
32. ^ (David) Freedberg, 141
33. ^ Hall, pp. 10 and 315

References [edit]

• David Freedberg, "Painting and the Counter-Reformation", from the catalogue to The Historic period of Rubens, 1993, Boston/Toledo, Ohio, online PDF
• Freedburg, Sidney J. Painting in Italy, 1500–1600, tertiary edn. 1993, Yale, ISBN 0300055870
• James Hall, A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Art, 1983, John Murray, London, ISBN 0-7195-3971-4
• Michalski, Sergiusz. Reformation and the Visual Arts: The Protestant Image Question in Western and Eastern Europe, Routledge, 1993, ISBN 0-203-41425-X, 9780203414255 Google Books
• Noble, Bonnie (2009). Lucas Cranach the Elderberry: Art and Devotion of the German language Reformation. University Printing of America. ISBN978-0-7618-4337-v.
• Roy Potent; Art and Power; Renaissance Festivals 1450-1650, 1984, The Boydell Press;ISBN 0-85115-200-7
• Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Princes and Artists, Patronage and Ideology at Iv Habsburg Courts 1517-1633, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976, ISBN 0-500-23232-six

Further reading [edit]

• Avalli-Bjorkman, Gorel. "A Bolognese Portrait of a Butcher." The Burlington Mag 141 (1999).
• Caldwell, Dorigen. "Reviewing Counter-Reformation Fine art." v Feb. 2007 [i].
• Christensen, Carl C. "Art and the Reformation in Federal republic of germany." The Sixteenth Century Journal Athens: Ohio UP, 12 (1979): 100.
• Coulton, G G. "Art and the Reformation Reviews." Art Bulletin 11 (1928).
• Honig, Elizabeth. Painting and the Market place in Early on Modern Antwerp. New Haven: Yale Upwardly, 1998.
• Koerner, Joseph L. The Reformation of the Image. London: The University of Chicago P, 2004.
• Knipping, John Baptist, Iconography of the Counter Reformation in the Netherlands: Heaven on Earth 2 vols, 1974
• Mayor, A. Hyatt, "The Fine art of the Counter Reformation." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 4 (1945).
• Silver, Larry. Peasant Scenes and Landscapes: the Rise of Pictorial Genres in the Antwerp Art Market. Philadelphia: University Pennsylvania P, 2006.
• Wisse, Jacob. "The Reformation." In Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000- [2] (Oct 2002).

External links [edit]

• Review of The Reformation of the Image by Joseph Leo Koerner, by Eamon Duffy, London Review of Books

porterpricien.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation

Share this post